捕食者對視覺訊號的差異的內在排序與其對擬態演化的影響

photo from Katatrepsis

標題:Hierarchical overshadowing of stimuli and its role in mimicry evolution

摘要

An elegant study by Kazemi et al. (2014, Current Biology, 24, 965e969) found that blue tits, Cyanistes caeruleus, that had been trained to distinguish between rewarding and nonrewarding prey subsequently avoided novel prey that had the same colour (but not the same shape or pattern) as the nonrewarding prey. Their work suggested that certain high-salience discriminatory traits can overshadow other informative traits, allowing imperfect mimics to establish. Here we began by replicating their ambitious experiment by evaluating the behaviour of 320 human subjects foraging on computer-generated prey. However, to fully understand how overshadowing might facilitate the establishment of incipient mimics, we significantly extended their protocol to a full factorial design involving mimics with colour, pattern and/or shape in common with their former models. As Kazemi et al. reported, participants placed more weight on colour similarity than on shape similarity when rejecting prey. Two-trait mimics with the same colour and pattern or the same colour and shape as their former models were avoided as frequently as perfect mimics, while colour-only mimics were avoided more frequently than shape-only mimics. Nevertheless, novel prey with no traits in common with nonrewarding models were avoided at high rates, possibly in part due to their dissimilarity to familiar rewarding prey. The implications of these findings for mimicry evolution are discussed.

Kazemi et al 2014. Stimulus salience as an explanation for imperfect mimicry的研究中提到,藍山雀(blue tits)訓練後可以藉由顏色分辨有回饋與沒回饋的獵物,若這其中有某些比較高凸顯度的特徵,那這些特徵在捕食者的眼中會把其他的特徵「遮蓋」,形成某些重要的特徵越發凸顯,而看起來不重要的特徵與擬態就無關,這會促使不完美擬態的形成,而且形狀與斑紋的樣式看起來對這結果沒有主要貢獻。

聽起來有點不可思議,形狀跟斑紋居然對擬態這件事沒貢獻?這篇的作者們想必也這麼覺得,於是以上面那篇的實驗流成為基礎,這次不用我們不知道在想什麼的鳥,換成我們最了解的捕食者-人類-來進行實驗。作者找來320位志願者來進行實驗,實驗的流程比起Kazemi et al來說,設計的更為複雜,不同的形狀與顏色放在不同的分組中,讓這些「捕食者」學習。
實驗進行的方法是讓這些「捕食者」先看一段影片,顯示實驗的自然環境(有點像是把捕食者放進去冷靜一下),影片中不會有任何有關實驗的資訊。接著就會開始進行4次的學習,獵物分為有報酬與沒報酬兩種,如果點到有報酬的圖案,就會放出悅耳的聲音,反過來無報酬的話就會放出尖銳的電子音。接下來就進行4次的分辨試驗,測試人類的分別程度。

部分實驗流程示意圖
photo from Fig. 1

有意思的事情發生了,即使是人類,也會把比較多的注意力放在顏色的相似而非形狀或斑紋的相似性上。如果顏色與斑紋,或顏色與形狀一樣的情況下,比起只有形狀相像的情況,人類能分辨的程度就如同分辨完美擬態的獵物一樣。如果形狀顏色斑紋沒有一個與擬態模型相同的狀況下,則這樣的獵物非常容易被分辨出來。

說白話了,這聽起來有點匪夷所思,即使是人類,也反應出對顏色比較高的注意,代表的是無論什麼樣的生物長的差很多沒關係,只要某些重要的「顏色」存在就行了(但有兩個特徵相像更佳),如果這可以解釋為何不完美擬態總有些部分長的特別像,而這些像的部分足以填補那些不像的部分,那麼實際上我們看到的那些長的非常相像的物種到底是發生了什麼事?為何需要花費這麼多的力氣把這麼多特徵發展的如此相似?甚至有些物種整個外觀都變了(如某些蝴蝶的翅膀的型態整個改變)?

剩下的就是邏輯與哲學的問題:以人類的眼光來看,這些獵物看起擬態的很「不完美」,可是如果捕食者比較容易注意到這些比較突出而忽略比較不突出的部分,而這些突出的特徵又「完美」的擬態其模型,這時候「不完美擬態」這個概念還應該存在嗎?




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