默默離開或激烈逃亡:兩種燈蛾亞科成員的聲學警戒性與逃脫行為的抉擇

Fig. 1 文中的燈蛾與苔蛾的發音結構型態與其發音頻率
標題:Acoustic Aposematism and Evasive Action in Select Chemically Defended Arctiine (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) Species: Nonchalant or Not?

摘要

Tiger moths (Erebidae: Arctiinae) have experienced intense selective pressure from echolo- cating, insectivorous bats for over 65 million years. One outcome has been the evolution of acoustic signals that advertise the presence of toxins sequestered from the moths’ larval host plants, i.e. acoustic aposematism. Little is known about the effectiveness of tiger moth anti-bat sounds in their natural environments. Weused multiple infrared cameras to recon- struct bat-moth interactions in three-dimensional (3-D) space to examine how functional sound-producing organs called tymbals affect predation of two chemically defended tiger moth species: Pygarctia roseicapitis (Arctiini) and Cisthene martini (Lithosiini). P. roseicapi- tis and C. martini with intact tymbals were 1.8 and 1.6 times less likely to be captured by bats relative to those rendered silent. 3-D flight path and acoustic analyses indicated that bats actively avoided capturing sound-producing moths. Clicking behavior differed between the two tiger moth species, with P. roseicapitis responding in an earlier phase of bat attack. Evasive flight behavior in response to bat attacks was markedly different between the two tiger moth species. P. roseicapitis frequently paired evasive dives with aposematic sound production. C. martini were considerably more nonchalant and employed evasion in fewer interactions. Our results show that acoustic aposematism is effective at deterring bat preda- tion in a natural context and that this strategy is likely to be the ancestral function of tymbal organs within the Arctiinae.

很多夜行性的鱗翅目跟日行性的一樣,有紅黑黃相間看起來顯眼的警戒色,還有抓到後會釋放出難聞氣味或液體的化學防禦,但奇怪的概念衝突在於很多捕食鱗翅目的捕食者不是用視覺偵測(蝙蝠、蜘蛛),用視覺偵測的捕食者不吃鱗翅目(貓頭鷹),所以這些警戒性到底在夜間如何作用,到目前還沒有個很適合的理論,但是如果除了視覺之外,還有其他的方式能夠連結化學防禦,達到如視覺般有警戒性效果的方法嗎?

夜間如果不是用看的,那就只能用聽的,小型昆蟲的主要捕食者之一就是蝙蝠,透過超音波來搜尋獵物,而某些夜蛾能夠發出與蝙蝠相似的頻率的聲音來迷惑捕食者,或是偵測到來自捕食者的超音波立刻停止飛行掉落到地面,但是這些夜蛾沒有明顯的化學防禦,這些行為不被認為與警戒性有關聯,可是某些鱗翅目物種具有化學防禦的物種就是也會伴隨某些發聲行為,是否與警戒性有關係呢?

Fig. 8 蝙蝠遇到發出警戒音個體時的行為假設
作者群利用會發音的燈蛾,Pygarctia roseicapitis,與苔蛾,Cisthene martini 來討論這個現象。燈蛾與苔蛾都屬於燈蛾族 (Arctiini),一般認為這群蛾類會在體內累積有毒物質,捕食者吃到會吐掉,而這些物質有時也會用來做為吸引異性的費洛蒙。作者群想到,這兩種蛾的發音顯然不同於上面提到的夜蛾,如果不是為了迷惑捕食者,發音反而可能會吸引捕食者,但如果結合化學防禦的話,這有沒有可能是一種主動告訴捕食者「我不好吃」的訊號?

Fig. 2 蝙蝠遇到三種不同處理個體的接觸頻率與行為。藍色為不捕捉,橘色為捕捉但吐掉,灰色為吃掉。
Fig. 6 兩種蛾與到蝙蝠的飛行軌跡分析
作者群以遠紅外線的攝影機錄製燈蛾與苔蛾接觸蝙蝠時的3D立體軌跡,以及發音行為在這兩者間的交互作用中所扮演的角色。作者將這些蛾做了三種處理:保留發音結構 (Tymbaled, T+)、移除發音結構 (Ablated, T-)與只把發音結構周圍的鱗片移除做為控制組 (Sham, S)。結果顯示這兩種蛾在蝙蝠靠近時的發音頻率與模式,都與蝙蝠不在附近的發音有所差異。3D軌跡的結果顯示,當蝙蝠聽到這些發音後,明顯產生避免捕食這些蛾類的行為。這兩種蛾的發音行為也有所差異:燈蛾在較遠的距離偵測到蝙蝠後,就開始改變飛行行為(如夜蛾般掉落),並且產生警戒音,而苔蛾則保持繼續飛行但改變方向,採取一種默默離開以避免接觸的模式。

這個結果支持除了被動的發送視覺訊號外,在夜色茫茫星月無光看不見的情況下,主動發出聲音警告捕食者可能是更有效率的作法,而躲避蝙蝠發音的行為也被認為是燈蛾亞科的發音器最原本的作用,代表為了蝙蝠可能是推動燈蛾亞科演化出發音結構的最大動力。相對於視覺,聲學的警戒性也提供未來探討夜行性物種的防禦機制時的新方向。

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